SCOUT HISTORY
THE ORIGINS OF THE SCOUT MOVEMENT.
These notes do not claim to be an exhaustive treatment of the origins of Scouting but they seek to shed some light on the influences that came to bear upon Baden-Powell as he developed his scheme, and to seek to account for what is seen by some as the movement's miraculous growth. According to the popular historical myth, Baden-Powell was the founder of Scouting. He ran the experimental camp in 1907 on Brownsea Island, he wrote the scout's bible 'Scouting for Boys' in 1908, he set up the Boy Scouts organisation. Some people may know further that he claimed to be the Scout movement's originator, to the point whereby he swore an affidavit - 'Deposition as to Origins of the Scout Movement' #1.
Once the scheme was underway it achieved great success, not only in the UK but in other countries also. Yet, in spite of what was world-wide acclaim for Baden-Powell, there were other individuals who laid claim to be the founders of Boy Scouting. The fact that B-P had to provide such an affidavit demonstrates that the matter was not straight forward and there was some dispute in the early period, which has received attention from authors in recent years #2. Several authors agree that in developing his Boy Scout scheme, there was a gestation period, although the length of this period varies from author to author. Rosenthal places the beginning in 1904 #3, Dedman in 1904, Springhall in 1906 #4. Tim Jeal although deciding a particular month for a determined effort to produce the scheme for the Boys Brigade (December 1905) #5, he deals with the complexity of events and influences leading to the publication of 'Scouting for Boys' (1900-1908) #6.
Although Martin Dedman and Tim Jeal tend to favour the civic aims of the movement as being the controlling factor #7 several other authors such as the late William Adams, conclude that the defence of the British Empire formed a very important motive in the creation of the Boy Scouts #8. As an example Baden-Powell was impressed by the contribution of the Mafeking Cadet Corps which features in camp Fire Yarn Number one in 'Scouting for Boys'. The Cadet Corps had been founded prior to the Boer War and was not in any way unusual. It gained fame, as B-P did, through its work during the siege. Baden-Powell's interest in Boys and the welfare of the young began before then, when in 1899 he began to take an interest in his nephew Donald, playing the part of a perfect Uncle #9.
As a hero his patronage was sought for a number of Boy's
organisations; In 1900 he lent his name to the Baden-Powell
League of Health and Manliness. In 1901 more 'B-P'
organisations existed; The B-P Boys of Greenock, the B-P
Brigade and the B-P Anti-Cigarette League #10. In 1903 he
became Honorary Colonel of the Southport Cadets #11. Of
interest to the beginnings of the Scout Movement is the
fact that in May 1903 he accepted an invitation to become a
Vice-President of the Boys Brigade #12, after he had
chaired the annual demonstration at the Albert Hall. B-P
was invited to review the Boys Brigade a year later at
Glasgow and at Liverpool and was impressed with the numbers
in the Boys Brigade (then 54,000) but felt that with a more
varied programme within 20 years the number could be ten
fold #13.
William Smith challenged B-P to prepare material along the
lines of his popular military handbook of 1900, 'Aids to
Scouting'. Apart from a report published in the Boys
Brigade Gazette in June 1904 advocating the character
forming qualities of scout training, nothing emerged in
terms of a Boys Brigade scouting programme in that year,
but invited by Dr Edmond Warre, Headmaster of Eton College,
Baden-Powell gave a lecture on 'Soldiering' 24th November
1904 to an audience of Boys intending to make the army
their career #14. This was followed up by a letter
published in the Eton College Chronicle on the 22nd
December 1904 concerning a training scheme for Boys.
Baden-Powell suggested that during the Christmas holiday
each of the Eton Volunteers should bring together a small
squad in their town or Village, read to them books about
the Knights, and teach them:-
(1) How to aim and shoot miniature rifles; (2) How to judge
distance; (3) How to Scout; (4) How to drill and skirmish,
take cover etc.
Members of the squad were to sign a paper containing the
following:-
(1) To fear God (2) Honour the King (3) Help the weak and
distressed (4) Reverence women and be kind to children; (5)
Train themselves to the use of arms for defence of their
country (6) sacrifice themselves, their amusements, their
property, and, if necessary, their lives for the good of
their fellow-countrymen. A promise was to be made; I
promise on my honour, to be loyal to the King and to back
up my commander in carrying out our duty in each of the
above particulars. (Each member will sign his name in the
space below this.)
Baden-Powell further pointed out in the letter "If two
hundred volunteers carried out this idea and each trained
ten boys this Christmas, we should have 2,000 retainers
trained and ready to defend their country...........I shall
be very glad to hear from any boy who succeeds in getting
together a squad as I should like to keep a register of
these. And I would gladly come and inspect the one which
attains the highest strength this winter" #15
Tim Jeal dismisses the letter as amounting to the 'first
version of the later Boy Scout programme' since scouting is
only mentioned 'en passant' and it omits mention of
character forming properties of observation and scouting,
with the main aim being that of interesting young men in
rifle shooting #16. Against this view, whilst the character
forming stress of Scouting was absent from the Eton scheme,
the scheme was being recommended to a public school - a
character forming institute. Conversely the scout scheme of
1908 was offered to form a 'esprit de corps', to impart
'how to play the game', to boys at large - all part of the
public school ethos. An emphasis of the Eton scheme was
indeed rifle shooting, because Baden-Powell was writing for
a particular audience - the Eton Cadets. Never-the-less it
was intended that the Eton cadets further the scheme in
their home localities. The letter does prefigure ideas
which became a part of the 1908 version of Scouting for
Boys.
It opens like 'Scouting for Boys 1908' with an appeal to
patriotism "There is an opening for English Public School
boys to do their country a good turn" (Compare "I suppose
every British boy wants to help his country in some way or
other"). Items 2, 3, and 4 in the Eton scheme (3 out of 4)
can all come under the heading of 'boy scouting' and
scouting is not therefore 'en passant'.
In comparison 'Scouting for Boys 1908' reflects some of the
emphasis on rifle shooting in Camp Fire Yarn 27
'Citizenship' which devotes a chapter to marksmanship. The
imposition of a moral code, whilst not unique for Victorian
or Edwardian boys clubs or societies, also prefigure the
moral code for Scouts. There is no evidence that any squads
were formed as a result of the letter or of an abbreviated
version submitted to the 'Union Jack' boys paper and 'The
Marvel' boys paper in 1905 #17.
In May 1905 Baden-Powell produced a report for the army
about the value of scout training in boys organisations and
it was probably this report that reminded him to produce a
scheme in reply to Smith's request #18. He finally
submitted a scheme to the Boys Brigade which was published
in the Boys Brigade Gazette of June 1906. The scheme was
directed like the Eton scheme to a particular audience and
was, as requested, an adaptation of B-P's 'Aids to
Scouting'. The end product for the Boys Brigade was only
the equivalent of a proficiency badge subject, but lacked
the seriousness of a proficiency badge, as no badge was
issued for the ten part test. No further encouragement
appeared in the Boys Brigade Gazette (or from the Boys
Brigade headquarters) to further interest in the scheme of
scout training as a result of Baden-Powell's direct
submission.
The introduction of the Boys Brigade Scout Badge and
Certificate in 1909, came a year after the general
publication of Baden-Powell's scheme sponsored by Pearson's
in 1908, and was modelled on the 2nd Class and 1st Class
tests of B-P's Boy Scouts 1909 and followed in the wake of
popularity of the Scout Movement. The BB Scout Badge was
not a development of the 1906 scheme.
Whilst some authors may argue that the Eton scheme was
not a precursor to, or an early example of, the Boy Scout
scheme of 1908, what is inescapable is that both the Eton
scheme and the Boys Brigade scheme were attempts by
Baden-Powell to promote scouting as a means of youth work
with which to encourage patriotism. Both schemes bear
similar hallmarks;
a) use of scouting,
b) enjoins patriotism,
c) uses existing structures through which to promote the
scheme - Eton College Cadets, The Boys Brigade,
d) Seeks a wider audience through publications - The Eton
College Chronicle, Union Jack and The Marvel, The Boys
Brigade Gazette.
There were differences ie. in the Boys Brigade scheme no
moral code was needed - the Boys Brigade had their own
'Objects', Motto and Watchword. The Eton scheme featured
rifle shooting. Training in rifle shooting did not form
part of the BB programme and was not therefore included.
The Eton scheme included drilling; the BB already excelled
in drilling. Patriotism and an outline of a person's duty
was included in the Boys Brigade scheme, values very much
of public school, and therefore not in the Eton scheme.
A summary of the Boys Brigade Scheme of June 1906 scheme is
as follows:
Detective tales to be read (Sherlock Holmes etc,.),
Instruction to be given on; noticing details and
remembering them, passers by and deduction of character and
occupation, compass, direction by sun or stars, tracking,
lighting a fire, ability to swim, patriotism, Union Flag
and its meaning. Need of good citizens, Duty etc.
Qualifying examination 10 parts 1. write from memory
contents of shop windows. 2 Describe passers by from
memory. 3 Remember numbers of first two passing cabs. 4
Compass direction by Sun or Box Compass. 5 Read tracks. 6
Paper chase. 7 Light Fire. 8 Cooking without utensils. 9
Draw Union Jack. 10 Scouting race.
The type of programme B-P had developed in 1906 was not
untypical of the age as this comment and letter in 'Truth'
#19 reveals;
"The following letter has come to me from Cape Colony
apropos of Major-General Baden-Powell's scheme of boy
scout's, which was referred to in TRUTH a few weeks ago
#20. The writer is Dr P.C.De Wet of Cradock, and it is
rather interesting to learn that general Baden-Powell's
idea of training boys has been in some respects anticipated
by a bearer of that historic name. Dr De Wet's little game
only covers a fraction of the programme of "B-P's", boy
scouts, but within that limit the two seem to be almost
identical:-
It was about a year after the war that the idea suggested
itself to me. The principle of the game was not original,
but the method, so far as I know, was my own. I wrote to
the headmaster of the local boy's school and offered a
yearly prize for an "observation race". As a matter of
fact, there were to be two prizes one gold medal and one
silver medal. The first-and alas! the only-race took place
shortly after my letter was sent. Most unfortunately the
Head had developed the spirit of laissez-faire, so common
in our semi-tropical country, and simply allowed the whole
thing to slide after this first race. The modus operandi of
our initial attempt was this: a road about a mile in length
was selected in the outskirts of the town. Along the sides
of the road were placed, at varying distances, certain
animate and inanimate objects. As far as I remember, the
total number amounted to sixty, and covered a wide range.
For instance, next to a Cape cart, with a pair of bay
ponies (one with white hind feet), one might find the stock
end of an old carbine; beyond that possibly a black and
white cow with a heifer; then twenty yards further a coil
of rope, and so on. We also placed several natives of
different ages along the course. The Boys were then marched
along the road in single file and brought back along the
same road, and wrote a list of all the objects they could
recollect. No literary polish was required, and it was
explained to the boys that the prize was to be given to the
one who recorded most of the objects, with a very brief
description of each. I was most agreeably surprised to find
how well the work was done. Even minute details were in
many cases not overlooked."
Whether Baden-Powell was discouraged by the lack of
enthusiasm at Eton, or in the Boys Brigade, towards his
suggestions for scout training or not, remains a question,
but his enthusiasm was warmed by a meeting with Ernest
Thompson Seton #21. Seton was born in Durham but had been
brought up in Canada and the United States. He had founded
an organisation in 1902 called the 'Woodcraft Indians'.
During that meeting on the 30th October 1906 both men were
seeking and offering mutual help. Future reflections on the
understanding of the discussion differed between Seton and
Baden-Powell.
In October of 1904 Seton had visited England and lectured
on his Red Indian Woodcraft scheme in numerous places. This
was followed up by a camp in Eccles in November. Other
Camps followed later at Hove, New Brighton and Kent Hatch
#22. Having heard of Baden-Powell's interest in Scouting,
Seton planned a further lecture tour for 1906 and wrote to
B-P in July of that year asking for help to popularise his
Woodcraft Camps in England and enclosed a copy of his
latest edition of the Woodcraft Indian Manual. Baden-Powell
suggested that they should meet, adding that he also was
working on a scheme on much the same lines as Seton's #23.
In the same month that Baden-Powell had received Seton's
letter, he had fulfilled a long standing engagement by a
weekend visit to Arthur Pearson, the newspaper owner #24.
It was at this meeting, plans were discussed for
Baden-Powell's training scheme and Handbook 'for the
education of boys as scouts' #25. Nothing had become of
B-P's initial draft for the Boys Brigade. The 'Scouting for
Boys' of 1906 had only amounted to an addition to the BB
programme and was not a stand alone scheme. Seton's gift of
the booklet on the Woodcraft Indians was for Baden-Powell
"a providential windfall" #26. It had provided Baden-Powell
with a workable framework for a stand-alone scheme. Before
this B-P had little to offer in the way of a boys training
scheme for publication. Both the Eton Scheme and the Boys
Brigade Scheme could be contained on a single page. Seton
and Baden-Powell continued to correspond throughout 1906
and 1907 #27.
| Birch Bark Roll 1906 | Scouting for Boys 1908 |
|---|---|
| Main scheme 'Campercraft' | Main scheme |
| 1 Group of tests consecutively numbered.
No sub division but achievements of two grades. Those in the record making class are first class braves (p45) |
1 Group of tests consecutively numbered.
Sub-divided 1-5 Second class, 6-12 First Class (p36) |
| amongst the subjects are:-
Knots, Fire lighting, First Aid, Hike, Know and use signs, Taking latitudes from the stars, Camping, Chopping down trees, Naming star groups, |
amongst the subjects are:-
Knots, Fire lighting, First Aid, Hike, Scout law and signs, Compass, Union Flag, Tracking, Canoeing Estimation, Boat Building. |
| Proficiency tests called Honors | Proficiency tests called Badges of Honour |
| Fishing, Bait-Casting, Riding, Shooting, Archery,
Mountain-Climbing, Eyesight, Athletics, Nature Study,
Geology, Photography; Each part of the main scheme counts as an honor |
Signalling, Stalking, First Aid, Merit; Additional Badges added in Later Scheme |
| 24 honors count the member as a Sachem | Later scheme: 24 proficiency badges count for the Silver Wolf. |
| Honors: Badges two forms of award
1) feather to go in bonnet and also 2) round badge for ordinary wear with a symbol of the subject encircled, if first class standard. |
Honours: First and Second Class Badges to be gained
(see Main scheme). Badges of honour consist of a badge with a symbol of the subject encircled. |
| Vow and 10 Laws | Oath and 9 Laws (10th added 1909) |
| On joining a 'scalp' of horsehair is issued. Represents a members honor. Can be lost in failure in competition or task. New one can be issued by Tribe Council. | The First Class Badge represents Scout's 'life'. Can be lost for failure in difficult task. Can be regained by some good work as judged by the Court of Honour. |
| Organisation: | Organisation: |
| Basic Unit: Bands of 10-50 Identified by a Totem of any bird animal, tree or flower. | Basic Unit: Patrol of 6-8 Identified by a Totem of any bird or animal. |
| Members use left handshake #28 | Members use left handshake |
| Tribal Council organises internal affairs. Consists of Sachems and elected members. | Court of Honour organises internal affairs. No details given on membership. Later scheme restricts membership to Patrol Leaders and Seconds |
| Activities divided between practical scoutcraft,
test work,
and games. |
Activities divided between practical scoutcraft, test work and games. |
An examination of the shape of both schemes reveals
identical elements. It would be impossible to say that
Baden-Powell's 1908 'Scouting for Boys' training scheme did
not in some measure reveal a dependence upon Seton's work.
The chart reproduced above places the common elements of
both schemes side by side.
Baden-Powell also had access to Seton's other books. In
particular anyone who has read 'Scouting for Boys' (SFB)
and then turns to 'The Two Little Savages' of 1903 (TLS)
will find the illustrations familiar;
| The Two Little Savages' of 1903
- to be found in the book; |
Scouting for Boys 1908
- to be found in the book; |
|---|---|
| Game: Quicksight - spots on a card | Game: Spottyface - spots on a card |
| Indian signs | Scout signs |
| Identification of trees by their leaves | Identification of trees by their leaves |
| how to make a bed at camp | how to make a bed at camp |
| how to light a fire | how to light a fire |
| how to estimate the height of trees | how to estimate the height of trees |
| how to find direction by the stars | how to find direction by the stars |
Quite clearly, Seton's "The Two Little Savages' of 1903" had become a resource for Baden-Powell in the compilation of his own Book, "Scouting for Boys".
Absent from 'Aids to Scouting' in 1900 (an Army manual for mounted Scouts written by Baden-Powell - also not free from the criticism of plagiarism), and absent from the Eton College scheme of 1904 and the 'Scouting for Boys' scheme in the Boys Brigade Gazette of June 1906, is any use of the word 'Woodcraft'. Although as Tim Jeal points out, Baden-Powell was not a stranger to the word and had used it at least twice as far back as the 1890s #29, no further examples are forthcoming until after contact with Seton.
By November 1906, Baden-Powell had sufficiently advanced
his plans that he undertook a visit to discuss scouting
with members of Birkenhead YMCA #30. The YMCA held more
promise than Eton and the Boys Brigade in advancing a youth
training scheme. B-P held an experimental camp 25th of July
to the 9th August, on Brownsea Island, Poole, run in
liaison with Pearson who sent Percy Everett his senior
editor to experience the camp for 24 hours #31. After the
camp, B-P met Mr Charles E Heald, National Secretary for
YMCA boys work, at the YMCA National Headquarters. Mr Heald
in liaison with Mr W B Wakefield the Honorary Secretary of
the Boy's Department, arranged for B-P to address a number
of public meetings, to be organised by the YMCA #32, the
first of which was held on the 8th November at Hereford.
Between November and December further meetings were held at
such venues as Harrogate, Swansea, Radcliffe (Lancs),
Leeds, Exeter, Plymouth, Carlisle, Glasgow, Edinburgh,
Scarborough, Cardiff, and London #33. Further meetings were
held in the new year at such centres as Birkenhead,
Manchester, York and Nottingham.
In all Baden-Powell had delivered more than fifty public
lectures on his Boy Scouts Scheme #34. In particular a
passage in 'Scouting for Boys' singles out the YMCA as a
possible growth point;
"Y.M.C.A.-Everyone recognises the keenness and go-a-head
manliness of the members of the Y.M.C.A. and Polytechnics
in all parts of the kingdom, and I am convinced that if
these men could see their way to do a good turn to the
rising generation of their countrymen they would take it up
with ardour, especially since this kind of work is becoming
part of their policy. It is these gentlemen that I have
specially in my eye in suggesting this scheme, as being the
men who can, if they wish, get hold of practically the
whole of the British boyhood by means of scouting. If every
member of the Y.M.C.A. took a friend as second in command
and six boys as pupils, each required to bring another
recruit, and then acting as leaders and instructors to
further patrols of six, there would at once be the
commencement of a great 'snow ball' movement for good" #35.
The YMCA had replaced Eton and the Boys Brigade in the
affections of B-P in the drive to launch a successful
training scheme. Although YMCA Troops feature amongst the
first formed in the country, once the scheme was underway
the number of Troops organised by Churches and other
agencies was to outstrip the troops organised by the YMCA
#36.
The discussions and correspondence with Seton, the
business arrangement with Pearson to finance the launch of
a scheme, the successful experimental camp at Brownsea
Island and the practical help and encouragement of the
YMCA, coupled with the successful ideas for his handbook
would have impressed upon Baden-Powell the viability of his
own scheme, which in fact became a reality.
The possibility of some sort of separate organisation must
have been in B-P's mind from the moment he sorted out
details of the scheme with Pearson #37. An Office from
which to administer the scheme existed before the
publication of 'Scouting for Boys' ! In addition a 'get
out' clause with (and from) Pearson had been negotiated, so
that the scheme could be truly independent.
The first public admission that there was a separate
organisation occurs in a pamphlet published early 1909 'The
Boy Scout Scheme' #38. In other words all the
infra-structure of an organisation was in place well before
'Scouting for Boys' launched the movement, or that it was
admitted that this was the case.
Scout historians favourable to the Baden-Powell
organisation, see the Brownsea Island Camp as the 'germ' -
the 'acorn' of the movement. Seton's understanding of the
relationship between himself and Baden-Powell, as voiced
several years after their initial contact, would view the
Brownsea Camp, and the launch of the Scout movement in a
different light. Seton had already run Woodcraft Camps in
England and sought out individuals to popularise the
movement, hence his contact with Baden-Powell, with whom he
freely shared his experiences and expertise. In the light
of Seton's previous work in England and their agreement to
work together, Baden-Powell's camp could be seen as part of
a continuing movement - albeit - with an influx of his
B-P's ideas and experience, but a movement which was begun
by Seton.
In 1909 with Baden-Powell's Boy Scouts having become highly
successful as a separate organisation, and by name being
contradistinctive from the Woodcraft Indians, Seton
complained about "what he saw as the wholesale
unacknowledged borrowings from his work that went into the
writing of Scouting for Boys." #39
To be fair to Baden-Powell, 'Scouting for Boys' was not
just 'Birch Bark Roll' and 'Two Little Savages' rewritten,
containing elements from both these books in addition, it
contained earlier material of B-P's. Baden-Powell 's own
claim was that 'Scouting for Boys' was 'Aids to Scouting'
rewritten #40. Although material from 'Aids to Scouting'
was incorporated within the pages of 'Scouting for Boys',
the contribution from this source, given its size, could
only amount to one eighth of the new book, reaching in its
fortnightly parts nearly 400 pages #41.
Although the idea of a training scheme for boys based on
scouting was Baden-Powell's idea, Seton's scheme provided
the right shape as well as many of the ingredients. However
B-P's 'borrowings' were not restricted to Seton and even
the 'Aids to Scouting' within the pages of 'Scouting for
Boys' may have originated in a similar process due to his
contact with Burnham, an American Scout working in South
Africa in the late 1800s #42. Other influences from various
sources are detectable within 'Scouting for Boys', but it
may not be clear as to whether B-P himself imported all the
ideas or how much, if any was due to Pearsons #43. The book
was a compendium of ideas, and at least the shape of the
Boy Scout bible had been highly influenced by Pearson, who
had sent his senior editor - Percy Everett to lend
Baden-Powell a hand. Scouting for Boys adopted a pot-pourri
approach, a highly successful formula used in 'Tit Bits'
and Pearson's Weekly.
Baden-Powell leaves oblique clues as to his sources by the
provision of the further reading lists at the end of each
section in the earlier editions of 'Scouting for Boys'. A
further clue to Baden-Powell's plagiarism is contained in a
comment by Percy Everett on Baden-Powell's authorship of
'Scouting for Boys'; "He is an omnivorous reader of books
and papers, and was quick to find and use any fact or
incident which would be helpful..." #44
In setting down his scheme in 1908, B-P used many ideas
that were current. That is why his completed scheme struck
a chord with so many people.
Examples of ideas of the period used by Baden-Powell.
1) The Name of the Scheme.
The choice of the name 'Boy Scout' did not occur in a
vacuum, it was a name already invested with the image of a
hero and frontiersman. Originally the words 'Boy Scout'
were coined towards the end of 1899 in the 'Buffalo Bill
Library' to describe one of; "Buffalo Bill's most trusted
Scouts.....Harry White a youngster of seventeen" #45
Following in the wake of the Boer War the 'True Blue War
Library' #46 recast the name 'Boy Scout' to describe the
adventures in the Transvaal of the heroic figure of a young
man serving his country out in the colonies. This invested
the name 'Boy Scout' with an image and made the 'Boy Scout'
a cult figure of Boy's literature. The hero of our story
which was serialised for the best part of six years was
called 'Harry St George' !
In the first story there is a description of him:- "The
youth was barely eighteen, with well marked fair features
and light auburn hair, which the close crop could not avail
to conceal had a tendency to curl. It was a noble face, and
gazing upon it one could not refrain from remarking that
the possessor was well born. There was courage and chivalry
stamped upon every line and determination was strongly
depicted in the low jaw" #47 Harry St George having been
sent to South Africa by his Guardians to gain experience
abroad. He joined the border police, rose to the rank of
sergeant and then gained a commission in Colonel Scarlett's
irregular cavalry. Other adventures were such as 'The Boy
Scout as Spy Tracker' and 'Boy Scout joins B-P's Police'.
The series of Boy Scout adventures ran weekly for the first
year then periodically for a further five years up to a
year before the Brownsea Camp #48.
To commend 'Boy Scouting' was to commend unselfish service
to ones country.
Howard Spicer editor of the boys' paper 'Boys of the
Empire' took up the theme by serialising Baden-Powell's
'Aids to Scouting' under the title of 'The Boy Scout' from
November 1900 to early 1901. Alongside the serialisation
was a Scouting competition that of finding Newsagents that
did not stock the periodical. Those taking part were
commended "Our Boy Scouts have been a huge success. They
have taken Baden-Powell's hints and have tracked down every
culprit who ignores BOYS OF THE EMPIRE". They were further
described as an "army of Boy Scouts" #49.
The image of a 'Boy Scout' whilst partly inspired by B-P
was not created by B-P but by the media of Boys' Papers,
and in particular the True Blue War Library. In 1908
further use of this image was employed in 'Scouting for
Boys' by Baden-Powell. The Boy Scout of the
colonies-depicted in the adventure stories of 'The True
Blue War Library' and in his serialised 'Aids to Scouting'
could be available to the boys of the Nation everywhere
with his first hand seal of approval.
2) Chivalry and Moral Codes.
In the late eighteenth century there began a revival of
chivalry which permeated the nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries #50. Tennyson's 'Idylls of the King' written in
1859 onwards is but one example of the revival's impact on
poetry. Such poetry further fuelled the interest in
Chivalry. This revival had its impact on the late
nineteenth century/early twentieth century. For example, it
would be unusual for a boys organisation not to have a
moral code. Baden-Powell wove this feature into his Scout
scheme. In addition to the fact that to don a Boy Scout
uniform was to step into the identity of a frontiersman
serving his country, there was the idea, that to be a Boy
Scout was to adopt a moral code. In this B-P was a product
of his age.
The 'True Blue War Library' which published the Stories of
the Boy Scout in 1900 also ran a club possessing some the
elements that were to be found in the Boy Scout Movement
less than a decade later. The members of the 'Trusty Band'
were bound by a number of laws amongst them were:- To be
true to themselves and to their friends; To do their best
to help one another in time of trouble and distress; To be
humane to animals and prevent cruelty to creatures by
others. 'The Boys of the Empire' also ran a club 'Boy's
Empire League' with its own moral code. It is this club
that sponsored the Scouting competition describing its
participants as 'Boy Scouts'. Seton's Woodcraft Indians
were also bound by a moral code consisting of a vow and 10
Laws. Some authors discount any dependence by B-P on
Seton's Laws as B-P's are couched in positive terms and
Seton's in negative terms. ie 'A Scout is..' rather than 'A
scout must not'. Yet it is a simple task to rephrase a
moral code. ie Seton's 'don't rebel' can become B-P's 'A
Scout obeys his .....'. It is doubtful that Seton
influenced B-P's use of a moral code, as he had chosen a
similar code for his Eton College Volunteer's scheme in
1904 before meeting Seton.
A more direct origin is provided by Mark Girouard who
traces many of B-P's Scout Laws to the Book 'The Broad
Stone' #51. Baden-Powell saw his scouts as the young
Knights of the Empire, and in this thinking he was probably
partly inspired by a successful American youth organisation
begun in 1893 by the Reverend William Byron Forbush, called
the Knights of King Arthur #52.
3) Court of Honour and Self Government.
In 1889 the Children's National Guild of Courtesy had been
founded in elementary schools. The Reverend John Paton
sought to extend this work with 'The League of Honour'. The
governing unit of the organisation was a 'Court of Honour'.
The Court bound its members by a confederacy of honour. The
organisation never really got off the ground. An isolated
example existed for a short while at Dalston, North London.
The idea was crowded out by the Boys Life Brigade, Paton
founded in 1899 and by the emerging Boy Scouts and the
successful Alliance of Honour, which B-P recommended for
its literature in his Camp Fire Yarn on the rules of
health. The ideas on the League were passed around for
discussion and publicised widely #53. The 'Court of Honour'
recommended itself as a suitable principle and name for
inclusion in B-P's Boy Scout scheme.
Girouard claims "If Forbush and Ernest Thompson Seton are
mixed together, something not unlike the Boy Scout movement
emerges." #54. In confirmation of this, it can be noted
that both Digby and Forbush appear in B-P's bibliography in
Scouting for Boys #55. The Court of Honour principle
happily merged with ideas from other authors and were
evidenced in Scouting for Boys, such as the principle of
self government #56, adapted from a guide on establishing
boy's club published by Charles Stelzle in 1904 #57.
Stelzle's book gains the usual reference in the further
reading section #58.
4) Mottoes.
Not unconnected with moral codes is the adoption of
mottoes, a contemporary example of which, is the Lovat
Scouts. At the end of 1899, after gaining permission from
the War Office, Lord Lovat raised two companies of Scouts
made up of Volunteer for use in the Boer War. These Scouts
proved their worth in the war by the use of scouting
skills. As a result of his achievements Lord Lovat was
awarded the military CB. In August 1902 the Boer War ended
the Scouts returned and disbanded but in June 1903 two
Regiments of Yeomanry were raised called 1st and 2nd Lovat
Scouts adopting the Lovat motto 'Je Suis Prest' (I am
ready). During their first camp they were inspected by
General Baden-Powell #59.
Other contemporary examples are The Trusty Band of the True
Blue War Library with its motto of 'True as Steel' replaced
by 'Honour' in 1903. The Boy's Empire League sported 'Many
Countries but one Empire' as its motto. In 1908 B-P
furnished the Boy Scouts with their own motto based on his
initials 'Be prepared' following in the fashions of the
day.
5) Secret Signs.
A further idea, current at the time, which recommended
itself to Baden-Powell's Boy Scout scheme was the idea of a
junior 'Freemasonary'. The True Blue Trusty Band of the
True Blue Library which had featured the Boy Scout stories,
had its own secret hand signs, known only to the purchasers
(or readers) of the True Blue paper ! In the same way B-P
had developed a scout sign from his Boy Scout salute.
In the first edition of Scouting for Boys, B-P describes a
second salute and sign for members who had received the
'Wolf' award. The index finger and thumb only were
extended. The same hand sign as drawn for members of the
Trusty Band that signified 'Beware we are being watched'.
The 'Wolf' salute was dropped from later editions of
Scouting for Boys.
The ritual revealed to purchasers of 'Scouting for Boys'
was as follows: the scout's sign is exchanged, the scouts
shake with the left hand, and upon revealing a scout badge
or other proof, the scout can be counted and aided as a
brother-scout #60.
It was also suggested by the editor of the True Blue
Library, that the members of the Trusty Band form
themselves into companies with groups of six to eight under
a Captain. In addition there was a membership badge and
medals to be won. The Trusty Band was not just a paper
membership as the Editor suggests that actual bands had
been formed #61. The True Blue Trusty Band, with its moral
code, motto, badges, signs, organisation and heroes did not
in any real sense prefigure B-P's Boy Scouts, but may have
provided a model and demonstrated various ingredients to be
found in many boys organisations of that period.
6) Nationalism.
Elliot E Mills' pamphlet 'The Decline and Fall of the
British Empire' that was published anonymously in 1905,
encapsulated the xenophobic fears of tory England. Early in
the same year of 1906 that the Scout's bible began to take
shape, Baden-Powell urged an audience to show their
patriotism to the extent of spending sixpence to buy the
pamphlet #62. This, plus the Scouts being treated to
excerpts of the pamphlet's themes in 'Scouting for Boys'
#63 re-enforces the point, that 'national defence' was a
prime motive of Baden-Powell.
Another author who had provided a focal point for those
same fears in his poem of 1902 'The Islanders' #64, Rudyard
Kipling, also provided Baden-Powell with the story of
'Kim', and a test of observation, later absorbed as part of
scout test work #65.
Yet additional ideas can be traced in subsequent editions
of 'Scouting for Boys' #66, not so much as to improve or
modify the scheme as suggested by Martin Dedman #67 but to
improve the 'pedigree' of the scheme, by demonstrating that
it was in conformity with current educational and youth
work.
In terms of the nationalistic values of patriotism and
imperialism, although some critics see the Boy Scout scheme
as seeking to encourage these, it also appealed to those
loyalties, hence the scout scheme being offered as a
practical means of patriotism as stated in the beginning of
the book.
7) Scouting.
'Scouting' the ingredient at the heart of B-P's programme
was an attraction in itself. As early as 1900 Baden-Powell
was aware of the romance the title of 'scout' carried. In
his introduction to 'Aids to Scouting' Baden-Powell writes;
"The very name 'scout' carries with it, even among
civilians, a romantic idea of a man of exceptional courage
and resource, while among soldiers the title is so much
sought after, that small bodies of mounted Volunteers and
companies of Light Infantry skirmishers have within recent
years demanded to be called 'scouts'." #68
The success, a uniformed organisation could achieve was
plain to see with such as the Boy's Brigade. The added
image of Boy Scouting to a uniformed organisation in many
ways guaranteed its success.
Mushroom Growth !
There was a social vacuum for such a youth movement as the
Boy Scouts #69, not only in Britain but abroad as well. The
society of the period was fertile ground for its emergence.
Two similar schemes are to be noted in South Africa. Dr P C
Wet's ideas outlined above and a scheme B-P knew about as
early as 1902. Edward P Carter of Johannesburgh had devised
a scheme for Boys entitled 'The Boys' Guide Brigade' #70
consisting of an amalgam of Seton's training scheme for his
'Woodcraft Indians' and the military drill of the Cadet
Corps. Carter's scheme included a motto 'In omnia paratus'
(in all thing ready). According to one newspaper claim B-P
saw Carter and his Brigade in 1902 at Johannesburg Station
and asked for details of his scheme and was sent them. He
acknowledged receipt by a reply 14th February 1903 #71.
In Germany, Dr Alexander Lion who had served as a Staff
Surgeon in German South-West Africa, like Baden-Powell made
much of the importance of scouting, reconnaissance and
pioneering skills #72. On his return to Germany, Dr Lion
became a leader of the well established 'Wandervogel' which
had been founded in 1901. Baden-Powell had equated the
Wandervogel as a German boy scouting movement and was in
correspondence with Dr Lion in the Autumn of 1908 #73.
Exchange visits took place between B-P's Scouts and the
Wandervogel in 1909 #74.
In the United States of America, in addition to Seton's
Woodcraft Indians, there existed another outdoor
organisation founded in 1905 by Daniel Carter Beard, The
Sons of Daniel Boone. Daniel Boone had been a pioneer
American scout #75. In the same way that the name 'Boy
Scout' evoked a romantic image, Beard had used Boone's
name.
Nearer to home on the Isle of Wight J H Burgress a Sergeant
in a Territorial Regiment had decided late 1907 to set up a
scout corps along military lines. Before he was able to set
up his organisation 'The Vectis Juvenile Scouts' (Vectis
being Latin for Isle of Wight), he came across the
Fortnightly parts of Scouting for Boys at a local Newspaper
shop. Thereafter he used his energies in furthering
Baden-Powell's movement #76.
So well chosen were the ingredients that made up
Baden-Powell's 'Scouting for Boys', that it had an
universal appeal, so much so, the Boy Scout empire was able
to attract, incorporate or swallow up other organisations,
or their leaders.
In 1910 the Woodcraft Indians, the Sons of Daniel Boone,
along with various independent Scout Troops and Patrols
formed the Boy Scouts of America.
In the same year Dr Lion formed the German Boy Scouts
separate from the Wandervogel. In 1911 Carter's Boy Guides
had become part of the British Boy Scouts.
The disappearance of the Catholic Boys Brigade in the UK by
1927 probably owes itself to the fact that its companies
may have become Catholic Scout Troops #77. In 1910 a good
number of Canadian Boys Brigade Companies had transformed
themselves into Scout Troops #78.
Some of the immediate success experienced by Baden-Powell
in the launch of his scout scheme owed itself to a
professional and well financed launch. Pearson had provided
the initial money and free publicity in the Daily Telegraph
and sponsored a national lecture tour #79. Boys Literature
formed a significant part of Edwardian youth culture #80.
The power of such media could not be ignored. Baden-Powell
was to harness this power by entering the world of the
'penny dreadfuls', first with the fortnightly parts of
'Scouting for Boys' (at 4 pence) followed by a regular diet
of 'The Scout' (at 1 penny). The expertise needed for this
operation was provided by Pearson. Not to be forgotten as a
fact, is that Pearson had gained another boys paper
launched by person who was a hero of the Empire. It was in
the knowledge that the scheme was a success, and an
organisation in its own right, as well as being an
additional programme for existing youth organisations, that
Baden-Powell broke from Pearsons #81.
Had the scheme not attracted such as the Churches who saw
it as a means of providing an activity for young people it
might have been destined to remain (and decline) as a boys
paper, which sponsored an interest club. Baden-Powell had
offered other youth agencies his scheme as a means of
training young people. Leaflets and pamphlets about the
training programme were issued in 1907, prior to the
publication of 'Scouting for Boys' #82. The Boys Brigade as
an example, had been provided with a scout programme in
1906. In other words the scheme did not present itself as
another organisation in competition, but as a 'public
domain' youth activity. A large measure of the success in
the UK owes itself to the fact that these agencies did
adopt the scheme #83. Dedman's PhD identifies that in two
local studies on scout troops in Manchester and Southampton
that at least 70% of Scout troops were run by Churches,
with others operated by schools #84.
Much acclaim is afforded to the scout movement's rapid
expansion abroad. The scouts were not the first youth
movement exported. Many home organisations were duplicated
throughout the empire. After its foundation in 1883 the
Boys Brigade expanded abroad almost immediately and by the
outbreak of the first world war was found in Australia, New
Zealand, South Africa, United States of America, Africa,
India, Ceylon, China, Hong Kong, Burma, Japan, Belize,
British Guiana, Panama and throughout the Caribbean #85.
In September 1910 while in the presence of Seton at a
Dinner to promote the Boy Scouts of America, Baden-Powell,
in answer to Seton introducing Baden-Powell as the father
of Scouting, Baden-Powell voiced "....There are many
fathers. I am only one of the uncles, I might say." #86
Eight years later with his scheme well established, when he
swore his affidavit - 'Deposition as to Origins of the
Scout Movement', Baden-Powell made himself the undisputed
founder, reducing the roll of living individuals such as
Seton and Smith #87.
Conclusion.
In making an assessment of the background to the rise of
the Scout Movement is not to deny the genius of
Baden-Powell but to place it against its historical
perspective and to account for the rapid rise of the Scout
Movement. Certain ideas were already at play at the time of
the movement's inception. Whether or not B-P's scheme
consisted of unacknowledged 'borrowings', even outright
plagiarism, B-P's genius consisted in the way he brought
about a workable scheme in which he orchestrated much of
what had been of value before and so produced the Scout
movement which became unique in its own right and has been
a major contribution in the field of youth work.
REFERENCES.
#1 Tim JEAL, Baden-Powell, Hutchinson, 1989. Page 581.
(JEAL, B-P).
#2 JEAL, B-P, Pages 376-381. Brian MORRIS, Ernest Thomson
Seton and the origins of the Woodcraft movement, The
Journal of Contemporary History Volume 5 No 2, 1970 Page
183-194.(MORRIS, Woodcraft). Michael ROSENTHAL, The
Character Factory, Collins 1986, Pages 64-81. (ROSENTHAL,
Character Factory). SPRINGHALL Int Rev; John O Springhall,
The Boy Scouts, Class and Militarism in Relation to British
Youth Movements 1908 - 1930, International Review of Social
History Volume XVI Part 2 1971 Pages 125-158. Relevant
Pages are 132-133. (SPRINGHALL, Int Rev).
#3 ROSENTHAL, Collins London 1984, Page 70.
#4 Martin John DEDMAN, Economic and social factors
affecting the development of youth organisations for
civilian boys in Britain between 1880 and 1914, PhD Thesis
London School of Economics and Political Science,
University of London 1985. Page 205, (DEDMAN PhD).
SPRINGHALL, Int Rev, Page 133.
#5 JEAL, B-P, Pages 373.
#6 JEAL, B-P, Pages 336-389.
#7 DEDMAN PhD, Pages 187-195, 215-216. JEAL, B-P, Pages
362, 365, 366, 373, 410, 411.
#8 William Scovell ADAMS, Edwardian Portraits, Secker and
Warburg 1957. Page 137. (ADAMS, Portraits).
#9 JEAL, B-P, Pages 205, 346, 358, 384, 427, 437-9, 518.
#10 JEAL, B-P, Page 364.
#11 JEAL, B-P, Page 358.
#12 JEAL, B-P, Page 360.
#13 SPRINGHALL, Int Rev, Page 131.
#14 JEAL, B-P, Page 373.
#15 The text is contained in Knights and Retainers: The
Earliest Version of Baden-Powell's Boy Scout Scheme,
Michael ROSENTHAL, Journal of Contemporary History Volume
15 1980 Page 604.
#16 JEAL, B-P, Page 369.
#17 JEAL, B-P, Page 370.
#18 JEAL, B-P, Page 373.
#19 March 18th 1908 Page 690
#20 Truth (Periodical), London Jan 22nd 1908 Page 197
#21 MORRIS, Woodcraft, Page 185.
#22 ROSENTHAL, Character Factory, Page 68.
#23 ROSENTHAL, Character Factory, Page 69 also JEAL, B-P,
Page 377.
#24 JEAL, B-P, Page 376.
#25 JEAL, B-P, Page 376.
#26 JEAL, B-P, Page 376. Ernest Thompson SETON, The
Birch-Bark Roll of the Woodcraft Indians, Doubleday, Page
& Company New York 1906, 5th Edition, 1st Edition 1902.
#27 ROSENTHAL, Character Factory, Page 69.
#28 Not given in Birch Bark Roll, but found in an earlier
book by Ernest Thompson SETON, Lives of the Hunted, David
Nutt 1901. Page 35 - Nubbins received as one of their
number. see MORRIS, Woodcraft, Page 189.
#29 JEAL, B-P, Pages 188, 189.
#30 JEAL, B-P, Page 382.
#31 JEAL, B-P, Page 386.
#32 E E REYNOLDS, Baden-Powell, Oxford University Press
1942. Page 147 (REYNOLDS B-P 1st Ed).
#33 E E REYNOLDS, The Scout Movement, Oxford University
Press 1950, Page 22. (REYNOLDS ScM). Eileen K WADE,
Twenty-one years of Scouting, C Arthur Pearson Ltd London
1929, Page 53. STANDISH LETTERS; Paul C Richards, The
Founding of the Boy Scout Movement as seen through the
letters of Lord Baden-Powell October 1907 - October 1908,
The Standish Museums and Unitarian Church, East
Bridgewater, Massachusetts 1973, Letter 20.
#34 REYNOLDS B-P 1st Ed, Page 147. STANDISH LETTERS,
Letters 22 and 23. JEAL, B-P, Page 390.
#35 Robert BADEN-POWELL, Scouting for Boys in Fortnightly
Parts. Horace Cox 1908. Part VI 26th March 1908 Pages
347-348 (B-P SFB FPn Date & Month), &
Lieut.-General BADEN-POWELL, Boy Scout Scheme, London 1909,
Pages 12-13.
#36 Foundation of first scout troops see JEAL, B-P, Page
630, 2. A Mushroom Growth, footnote 10. 75 years of
Scouting, The Scout Association, London 1982, Page 17. For
Troops organised by Churches see note #83 (and associated
text) below and W McG EAGAR, Making Men, University of
London Press 1953, Page 331.
#37 JEAL, B-P, Page 387.
#38 Quoted by DEDMAN PhD as being published prior to
15/1/08 when 'Scouting for Boys' was launched, see Pages
155 footnote 209, 203 footnote 68. The Pamphlet was in fact
published post April 1909 and issued from the Boy Scout
Headquarters 114-116 Victoria Street London SW. see
Lieut.-General BADEN-POWELL, K.C.B., Boy Scout Scheme, Page
20.
#39 ROSENTHAL, Character Factory, Page 70.
#40 Boy Scouts Association, Headquarter's Gazette, January
1914, quoted in E E REYNOLDS, B-P's Outlook, C Arthur
Pearson 1941, Page 47.
#41 'Aids to Scouting' numbers some 138 pages, but only
half the size of the pages in 'Scouting for Boys'. Some of
the information in 'Aids to Scouting' is only relevant to
mounted scouts, so by size the equivalent number of pages
to provide useful information to a juvenile readership
would be around 50 pages, only 12.5% (or 1/8th) of Scouting
for Boys.
#42 Baden-Powell first met Major Frederick Russell Burnham
in 1896. Burnham was an American Scout who worked for the
British South Africa Company. Baden-Powell first came
across the word 'woodcraft' through Burnham, whom he
admired. B-P corresponded with Burnham, thereafter. See
JEAL, B-P, Pages 188, 560 and 583.
#43 Tim JEAL hints at Pearsons contribution see JEAL, B-P,
Page 390.
#44 REYNOLDS B-P 1st Ed, Page 145.
#45 The New Buffalo Bill Library Issue 6 November 1899
Aldine Publishing
#46 Aldine Publishing January 1900.
#47 5th February 1900 First edition of the True Blue War
Library Aldine Press London. Also note, Robert H MACDONALD,
"Sons of the Empire", University of Toronto Press, 1993,
explores the identification of the Boy Scout with the image
of the Frontiersman.
#48 The last story published April 21st 1906 issue No.325.
#49 Boys of The Empire Volume for Dec 1900 Page 83.
#50 Mark GIROUARD, The Return to Camelot, Yale University
Press, LOndon 1981. Passim. (GIROURD).
#51 The Broad Stone of Honour, Kenelm Henry DIGBY, London
1st Edition 1822. see GIROUARD, Pages 56, 255 and 256.
#52 The Boy Problem, William Byron FORBUSH, Boston 1907.
#53 John Lewis PATON, John Brown Paton, A Biography, Hodder
and Stoughton London 1914, Pages 321-325.
#54 GIROUARD, Page 254.
#55 B-P SFB FP IV 12th March 1908, Page 250 and FP VI 26th
March 1908, Page 363f.
#56 DEDMAN PhD, Pages 200-202.
#57 Charles STELZSE, Boys of the Street and How to Win
Them, H REVELL 1904.
#58 B-P SFB FP VI 26th March 1908 Page 363.
#59 see The Story of the Lovat Scouts 1900-1980, Michael
Leslie MELVILLE, The Saint Andrew Press Edinburgh 1981
passim.
#60 B-P SFB 1st Edition 1908, Camp Fire Yarn 3.
#61 True Blue Library, Aldine Press. Various editions
1900-1901.
#62 Samuel HYNES, The Edwardian Turn of Mind, Oxford
University Press, London 1968. Page 26. (HYNES).
#63 B-P SFB FP I 16th January 1908, Pages 28 and 30, FP IV
26th February 1908, Page 209, FP V 12th March 1908, Page
314, FP VI 26th March 1908, Pages 335-338.
#64 HYNES, Pages 19-22. James COCHRANE, Rudyard Kipling,
Penguin Books London 1977, Pages 116-119.
#65 B-P SFB FP I 16th January 1908, Pages 14-19 and 54.
#66 DEDMAN PhD, Pages 205-211, also see below.
#67 DEDMAN PhD, Page 203.
#68 Aids to Scouting for N.-C.Os & Men, Bt.Colonel R S
S BADEN-POWELL FRGS 5th Dragoon Guards, Gale and Polden Ltd
London 1900, Page 14.
#69 MORRIS, Woodcraft, Page 186.
#70 The name Boy Guide was first used in the True Blue
Library No. 136 1901
#71 In John Bull of 1910 an article was published with
Carter's claim. The fact of contact with Carter and his
ideas (or organisation) is not disputed only his
contribution to the foundation of Scouting. Also The Scout
Association Archives, Baden-Powell House, Queen's Gate,
London, SW7 5JS, Tract Case 66, Newspaper cutting 6th June
1922. Letter from Pooley. Newspaper credit missing. This
letter provides the date of the reply by B-P to Carter.
#72 see Deutsche Reiter in Sudwest, Deutsches Verlagshaus
Bong & Co. Berlin 1907, Page 338. Walter Z LAQUEUR,
Young Germany A History of the German Youth Movement,
Routledge & Kegan Paul 1962 Page 73.
#73 STANDISH LETTERS No. 54.
#74 REYNOLDS ScM, Pages 66 and 67. JEAL, B-P, Page 453.
#75 MACLEOD, Building Character; David I Macleod, Building
Character in the American Boy, University of Wisconsin
Press 1983, Page 132.
#76 REYNOLDS ScM, Page 57.
#77 John SPRINGHALL with Brian Fraser and Michael Hoare,
Sure and Stedfast - A History of the Boys Brigade
1883-1983, Collins 1983, Page 70 (SPRINGHALL, Sure and
Stedfast).
#78 SPRINGHALL, Sure and Stedfast, Page 82.
#79 SPRINGHALL, Int Rev, Page 134.
#80 See J O SPRINGHALL, The Rise and fall of Hently's
Empire, The Times Literary Supplement October 3rd. Coming
of Age. John SPRINGHALL, Adolescence in Britain 1860-1960,
Gill and Macmillan London 1986 Pages 128-147. Patrick A
DUNAE, Boys' Literature and the Idea of Empire, 1870-1914,
Victorian Studies, Indiana University Autumn 1980.
#81 Piers BRENDON, Eminent Edwardians, Secker & Warburg
London 1979, Page 246.
#82 DEDMAN PhD, Page 155. JEAL, B-P, Page 382.
#83 DEDMAN PhD, Page 155. W McG Eagar, Making Men,
University of London Press 1953, Page331.
#84 DEDMAN PhD, Pages 154-158. Percentage given on Page
155.
#85 SPRINGHALL, Sure and Stedfast, Pages 72-91
#86 JEAL, B-P, Page 380.
#87 JEAL, B-P, Pages 581-583.
© Copyright: The Reverend Michael Foster 1999